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Testing effect

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The testing effect (also known as retrieval practice, active recall, practice testing, or test-enhanced learning)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> suggests <a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a> is increased when part of the <a href="Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> period is devoted to retrieving information from <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> It is different from the more general <a href="Practice_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Practice effect">practice effect</a>, defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

Cognitive psychologists are working with educators to look at how to take advantage of tests—not as an assessment tool, but as a <a href="Education" title="Education">teaching</a> tool <a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> since testing prior knowledge is more beneficial for learning when compared to only reading or passively studying material (even more so when the test is more challenging for memory).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

Before much experimental evidence had been collected, the utility of testing was already evident to some perceptive observers including <a href="Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> who discussed it as a learning strategy as early as 1620.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <blockquote>

"Hence if you read a piece of text through twenty times, you will not learn it by heart so easily as if you read it ten times while attempting to recite it from time to time and consulting the text when your memory fails." </blockquote>

Towards the end of the 17th Century, <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> made a similar observation regarding the importance of repeated retrieval for retention in his 1689 book "<a href="An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a>". <blockquote>

"But concerning the ideas themselves, it is easy to remark, that those that are oftenest refreshed (amongst which are those that are conveyed into the mind by more ways than one) by a frequent return of the objects or actions that produce them, fix themselves best in the memory, and remain clearest and longest there."<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> </blockquote>

Towards the end of the 19th century, Harvard psychologist <a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a> described the testing effect in the following section of his 1890 book "<a href="The_Principles_of_Psychology" title="The Principles of Psychology">The Principles of Psychology</a>" <blockquote>"A curious peculiarity of our memory is that things are impressed better by active than by passive repetition. I mean that in learning (by heart, for example), when we almost know the piece, it pays better to wait and recollect by an effort from within, than to look at the book again. If we recover the words in the former way, we shall probably know them the next time; if in the latter way, we shall very likely need the book once more." <a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></blockquote>The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott <a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> which was followed up by research into the transfer and retrieval of prior learning.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In his 1932 book Psychology of Study, <a href="Cecil_Alec_Mace" title="Cecil Alec Mace">C. A. Mace</a> said: <blockquote>"On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition. ... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced." <a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> </blockquote>Studies in retrieval practice started in 1987 by John. L Richards, who published his findings in a newspaper in New York. Much of the confusion around early studies could have been due to constrained approaches not accounting for context.<a href="#cite_note-:02-16">[16]</a> In more recent research with contributions from <a href="Hal_Pashler" title="Hal Pashler">Hal Pashler</a>, <a href="Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry Roediger</a> and many others, testing knowledge can produce better learning,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> transfer,<a href="#cite_note-:6-20">[20]</a> and retrieval <a href="#cite_note-:5-21">[21]</a> results when compared to other forms of study <a href="#cite_note-:10-18">[18]</a> that often use recognition <a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> like re-reading <a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> or highlighting.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Retrieval_practice">Retrieval practice</h2></div>

In recent research, storage strength (how well an item is learned) and retrieval strength (how well an item can be retrieved)<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> have become separate measures for retrieval practice.<a href="#cite_note-:8-26">[26]</a> Retrieval strength (also known as recall accuracy) is typically higher for restudied words when tested immediately after practice, whereas tested words were higher as time moves on.<a href="#cite_note-:9-27">[27]</a> This suggests using tests is more beneficial for long-term memory and retrieval<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> which some authors believe is due to limited retrieval success during practice<a href="#cite_note-:8-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> supporting the idea that tests are learning opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<a href="Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> suggests that retrieval practice strengthens subsequent retention of learning through a "dual action" affecting the anterior and posterior <a href="Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> regions of the brain.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> This could support findings that individual differences in <a href="Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">personality traits</a> or with <a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> capacity, don't seem to have any negative impacts of the testing effect,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> with a greater impact for lower ability individuals.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

Despite some doubting knowledge transfer across a topic when testing<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> with some studies showing contradictory evidence<a href="#cite_note-:11-36">[36]</a> suggesting recognition was better than recall,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> inferential thinking has been supported<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and the <a href="Transfer_of_learning" title="Transfer of learning">transfer of learning</a> is at its strongest with application of theory to practice, inference questions, medical education,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> and problems involving medical diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The transfer can occur across domains,<a href="#cite_note-:02-16">[16]</a> paradigms,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> and help retention for material not on a final test.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Using retrieval practices also produces less forgetting than studying and restudying<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> while helping to identify misconceptions and errors<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> with effects lasting years.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repeated_testing">Repeated testing</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></div>

Repeated testing have shown statistical significance<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and results getting better than repeated studying<a href="#cite_note-:12-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-50">[50]</a> which could be due to testing creating multiple retrieval routes for memory,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> allowing individuals to form lasting connections between items,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> or blocking information together<a href="#cite_note-:82-53">[53]</a> which can help with memory retention<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and schema recall.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Using <a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">spaced repetition</a> has shown an increase on the testing effect<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> with a greater impact with a delay in testing,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> but the delay could lead to forgetting<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> or <a href="Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">retrieval-induced forgetting</a>.

Delaying the test after a session can have a greater impact<a href="#cite_note-:14-60">[60]</a> so studying in the day should be tested in the evening with a delay, but studying in the evening should have an immediate test due the effect sleep has on memory.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Despite divided attention being thought to decrease the testing effect, if it is from a different medium it could enhance the effect.<a href="#cite_note-:11-36">[36]</a>

The rate of forgetting is not affected by the speed<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> or degree of learning<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> but by the type of practice involved.<a href="#cite_note-:14-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Test_difficulty">Test difficulty</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Desirable_difficulty" title="Desirable difficulty">desirable difficulty</a></div>

According to the retrieval effort hypothesis, "difficult but successful retrievals are better for memory than easier successful retrievals" which supports the idea of finding a <a href="Desirable_difficulty" title="Desirable difficulty">desirable difficulty</a> within the retrieval practice considering our <a href="List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">memory biases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> Learning a language was better when using unfamiliar words compared to familiar words, supporting higher difficulty resulting in greater learning.<a href="#cite_note-:13-64">[64]</a> The difficulty relates to the likelihood of forgetting<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> as the harder it is to remember, the more likely you are to remember and retain the information<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> supporting the notion that more effort is required for longer lasting retention<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> similar to the depth of processing at encoding.<a href="#cite_note-:32-68">[68]</a> Therefore, lack of effort from students studying could be a factor that reduces its efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-:12-49">[49]</a>

Increased difficulty shows decreased initial performance but increased performance on harder tests in the future, so retention and transfer suffer less when training is difficult.<a href="#cite_note-:82-53">[53]</a> Even unsuccessful retrieval can enhance learning,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> as creating the thought helps with retention<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> due to the <a href="Generation_effect" title="Generation effect">generation effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Like with processing time, it is the qualitative nature of the information that determines retention.<a href="#cite_note-:32-68">[68]</a>

Getting feedback helps with learning<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> but finding a <a href="Desirable_difficulty" title="Desirable difficulty">desirable difficulty</a> for the test combined with feedback<a href="#cite_note-:3-74">[74]</a> is more beneficial than studying or testing without feedback.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The Read, Recite, Review method<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> has been proposed as a method to combine retrieval practice with feedback.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Test_format">Test format</h3></div>

The test format doesn't seem to impact the results as it is the process of retrieval that aids the learning<a href="#cite_note-:0-79">[79]</a> but <a href="Transfer-appropriate_processing" title="Transfer-appropriate processing">transfer-appropriate processing</a> suggests that if the <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoding</a> of information is through a format similar to the <a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">retrieval</a> format then the test results are likely to be higher, with a mismatch causing lower results.<a href="#cite_note-:2-80">[80]</a> However, when short-answer tests or essays are used <a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> greater gains in results are seen when compared to multiple-choice test <a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>

<a href="Cued_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Cued recall">Cued recall</a> can make retrieval easier<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> as it reduces the required retrieval strength from an individual which can help short term results,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> but can hinder long term retrieval overtime due to reduced retrieval demand during practice.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Quicker learning can reduce the rate of forgetting for a short period of time, but the effect doesn't last as long as more effortful retrieval.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Cueing can be seen when encoding new information overlaps with prior knowledge making retrieval easier<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> or from a visual or auditory aid.

Prior knowledge seems to increase the impact of retrieval practice,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> but should not be seen as a boundary condition as individuals with higher prior knowledge and individuals with lower prior knowledge both benefit.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Pre-testing can be used to get greater results,<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and the post-testing can be used to facilitate learning and memory of newly studied information, known as the forward testing effect.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Pre-test or practice test accuracy doesn't predict post test results as time affects forgetting <a href="#cite_note-:62-95">[95]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-testing_effect">Pre-testing effect</h3></div>

The pre-testing effect, also known as errorful generation or pre-questioning, is a related but distinct category where testing material before the material has been learned appears to lead to better subsequent learning performance than would have been the case without the pre-test, provided that feedback is given as to the correct answers once the pre-testing phase is completed or further study is undertaken. Pre-testing has been shown to aid learning in both laboratory. and classroom settings.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> In terms of specific examples, pre-testing appears to be a beneficial strategy in language learning,<a href="#cite_note-:13-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-:82-53">[53]</a> science classrooms generally,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> and specifically with lower ability learners in Chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Pre-testing also seems to be a good way of introducing a lecture series and reduces mind-wandering during lectures.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> However, while some studies show that it does not seem to be as effective as post testing overall,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> others show that it is at least as effective as post-testing.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The pre-testing effect does appear to be more target focused on the specific material to be learned and should not be seen as correlated with more generalised <a href="Curiosity" title="Curiosity">curiosity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> While the strategy has been demonstrated to have learning benefits across different age groups and subject matters, it also appears to be more suited for more concrete material such as learning facts and concepts. It can be used with a variety of materials, including reading passages, videos, and live lectures.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practice_methods">Practice methods</h3></div>

When compared to <a href="Concept_map" title="Concept map">concept mapping</a> alone, retrieval practice is more beneficial,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> despite students not seeing retrieval practice as a useful learning tool.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> When combined, learner performance was increased, suggesting concept mapping is a tool that should be combined with retrieval practice<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> alongside other non-verbal responses.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Retrieval helps with mental organization<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> which can work well with concept mapping. Multimedia testing can be used<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> alongside flashcards as a method of retrieval practice but removing cards too early can result in lower long term retention.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Individuals may not correctly interpret the outcome of practice cards<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> contributing to dropped cards which impact future retrieval attempts <a href="#cite_note-:72-112">[112]</a> therefore resulting in lower results due to increased forgetting.<a href="#cite_note-:14-60">[60]</a>

It is advised that students,<a href="#cite_note-:16-113">[113]</a> people in care units<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and teaching professionals<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-118">[118]</a> use distributed<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> retrieval practice<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> with feedback to aid their studies.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Interleaved practice, self-explanation,<a href="#cite_note-:15-2">[2]</a> and <a href="Elaborative_interrogation" title="Elaborative interrogation">elaborative interrogation</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-113">[113]</a> can be useful but need more research.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Summarization can be useful for individuals trained how to use to get the most from it.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Keyword <a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonics</a> and imagery for text have been somewhat helpful but the effects are often short lived.<a href="#cite_note-:42-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-113">[113]</a> However, if each of these methods are integrated with retrieval elements the testing effect is more likely to occur.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Test_benefits">Test benefits</h3></div>

A list of benefits of retrieval practice.<a href="#cite_note-:92-125">[125]</a>

<ul><li>Aids later retention</li>

<li>Identifies knowledge gaps</li>

<li>Aids future related learning</li>

<li>Prevents interference from prior material in future learning</li>

<li>Aids transfer of knowledge to new contexts</li>

<li>Aids knowledge organization</li>

<li>Aids retrieval of untested information</li>

<li>Improves <a href="Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognitive</a> monitoring</li>

<li>Provides feedback to instructors</li>

<li>Frequent testing encourages study intentions</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quizzes">Quizzes</h3></div>

A meta-analysis found the following links between frequent low-stakes quizzes in real classes and improved student academic performance:<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a>

<ul><li>There was an association between the use of quizzes and academic performance.</li>

<li>This association was stronger in psychology classes</li>

<li>This association was stronger in all classes when quiz performance could improve class grades.</li>

<li>Students doing well on quizzes tended to lead to students doing well on final exams</li>

<li>Regular quizzing increased the chances of students passing classes</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transfer_of_learning">Transfer of learning</h3></div>

Learning using retrieval practice appears to be one of the most effective methods for promoting transfer of learning. In particular the following three techniques have been identified as particularly beneficial for transfer especially when combined with feedback: i) Implementing broad rather than narrow retrieval exercises ii) Encouraging meaningful explanations of concepts or topics iii) Using a variety of complexity and formats with questions such as retrieval questions that require inference.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Considerations">Considerations</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complex_materials">Complex materials</h3></div>

Some researchers have applied aspects of <a href="Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">cognitive load theory</a> to suggest the testing effect may disappear with increasing task difficulty due to increased element interactivity.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> This has been addressed in the literature with studies that show complex learning is benefitted by retrieval practice.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Further research has demonstrated that higher-order retrieval does not need to be based on a lower-level factual recall, and that from the beginning of the learning period, both should be combined for best effect.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_research">Future research</h3></div>

It has been suggested that as most studies on the impact of retrieval practice were conducted in <a href="WEIRD" class="mw-redirect" title="WEIRD">WEIRD</a> countries, this could cause a bias which should be explored in further studies.<a href="#cite_note-:17-118">[118]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.retrievalpractice.org/">RetrievalPractice.org</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.learningscientists.org/search?q=retrieval+practice">Learning Scientists</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aft.org/ae/fall2013/dunlosky">American Educator</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Powerful+Teaching%3A+Unleash+the+Science+of+Learning-p-9781119521846">Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning</a> by Pooja K. Agarwal and Patrice M. Bain</li>

<li><a href="Barbara_Oakley" title="Barbara Oakley">Barbara Oakley</a>. Online course <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coursera.org/learn/learning-how-to-learn">Learning How to Learn</a> on <a href="Coursera" title="Coursera">coursera</a></li>

<li>Brown, P.C., 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/9780674419377/html">Make it stick</a>. Harvard University Press.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/07/health/views/07mind.html">Forget what you know about good study habits</a> in the <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">New York Times</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/01/students-should-be-tested-more-not-less/283195/">Students Should Be Tested More, Not Less</a> in the Atlantic</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://productive.fish/blog/active-recall/">Comprehensive Guide to Applying Active Recall Techniques</a> by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://productive.fish/">Productive Fish</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div>

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</style><div id="Education397" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Education" title="Education">Education</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Overview150" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_education_terms" title="Glossary of education terms">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_education_articles" title="Index of education articles">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By perspective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Educational_aims_and_objectives" title="Educational aims and objectives">Aims and objectives</a>

<ul><li><a href="Learning_standards" title="Learning standards">Learning standards</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Educational_anthropology" title="Educational anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Course_evaluation" title="Course evaluation">Course evaluation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Standards-based_assessment" title="Standards-based assessment">Standards-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li>

<li><a href="Teacher_quality_assessment" title="Teacher quality assessment">Teacher quality</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Education_economics" title="Education economics">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_spending_on_education_as_percentage_of_GDP" title="List of countries by spending on education as percentage of GDP">Spending</a>

<ul><li><a href="Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuition_payments" title="Tuition payments">Tuition payments</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_education" title="History of education">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Inclusion_(education)" title="Inclusion (education)">Inclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_leadership" title="Educational leadership">Leadership</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_policy" title="Education policy">Policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_in_education" title="Politics in education">Politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_research" title="Educational research">Research</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional</a>

<ul><li><a href="Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_education_by_subject" title="List of education by subject">By subject</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_education" title="Agricultural education">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">Bilingual</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Death_education" title="Death education">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_education" title="Design education">Design</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_education" title="Economics education">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_education" title="Health education">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_education" title="Music education">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace</a></li>

<li><a href="Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical</a></li>

<li><a href="Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Values_education" title="Values education">Values</a></li>

<li><a href="Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Alternative_education" title="Alternative education">Alternative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adult_education" title="Adult education">Adult education</a></li>

<li><a href="Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_reform" title="Education reform">Education reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li>

<li><a href="Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li>

<li><a href="Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_accreditation" title="Educational accreditation">Accreditation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Accreditation_mill" title="Accreditation mill">Accreditation mill</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bloom's_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Board_of_education" title="Board of education">Board of education</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">Cognitive load</a></li>

<li><a href="Classroom_management" title="Classroom management">Classroom management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Class_arrangement" title="Class arrangement">Class arrangement</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">Compulsory education</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Curriculum" title="Curriculum">Curriculum</a>

<li><a href="Curriculum_development" title="Curriculum development">Development</a></li>

<li><a href="Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden</a></li>

<li><a href="Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Curriculum_theory" title="Curriculum theory">Theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Diploma_mill" title="Diploma mill">Diploma mill</a></li>

<li><a href="Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Desirable_difficulty" title="Desirable difficulty">Desirable difficulty</a></li>

<li><a href="Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">Spacing effect</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Pedagogical_pattern" title="Pedagogical pattern">Pedagogical pattern</a></li>

<li><a href="School_choice" title="School choice">School choice</a></li>

<li><a href="School_discipline" title="School discipline">School discipline</a></li>

<li><a href="Teacher_look" title="Teacher look">Teacher look</a></li>

<li><a href="Teacher_retention" title="Teacher retention">Teacher retention</a></li>

<li><a href="Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a>

<ul><li><a href="Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Blended_learning" title="Blended learning">Blended learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative</a></li>

<li><a href="Demonstration_(teaching)" title="Demonstration (teaching)">Demonstration</a></li>

<li><a href="Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">Experiential</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Feedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">Passive</a></li>

<li><a href="Peer_instruction" title="Peer instruction">Peer instruction</a></li>

<li><a href="Personalized_learning" title="Personalized learning">Personalized</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenon-based_learning" title="Phenomenon-based learning">Phenomenon-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li>

<li><a href="Project-based_learning" title="Project-based learning">Project-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered</a></li>

<li><a href="Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Teaching_philosophy" title="Teaching philosophy">Teaching philosophy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wikimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Education" class="extiw external" title="b:Subject:Education">Books</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/education" class="extiw external" title="wikt:education">Definitions</a></li>

<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Education" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Education">Images</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw external" title="v:Education">Learning resources</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw external" title="q:Education">Quotes</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw external" title="s:Education">Texts</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Stages197" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Educational_stage" title="Educational stage">Stages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary education</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:20%;"><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="Preschool" title="Preschool">Preschool</a> →</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergarten</a> →</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Infant →</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Junior →</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="Middle_school" title="Middle school">Middle school</a> →</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">High school →</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:40%;"><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a>  </td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Further_education" title="Further education">Further</a> (<a href="Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a> →</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a>  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AEducation" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Education_by_region397" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Africa273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Angola" title="Education in Angola">Angola</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Benin" title="Education in Benin">Benin</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Botswana" title="Education in Botswana">Botswana</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Education in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Burundi" title="Education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Cameroon" title="Education in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Cape_Verde" title="Education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Education in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Comoros" title="Education in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Djibouti" title="Education in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Eritrea" title="Education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Eswatini" title="Education in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Ethiopia" title="Education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Gabon" title="Education in Gabon">Gabon</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Gambia" title="Education in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Ghana" title="Education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Guinea" title="Education in Guinea">Guinea</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Education in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Education in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kenya" title="Education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Lesotho" title="Education in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Liberia" title="Education in Liberia">Liberia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Libya" title="Education in Libya">Libya</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Malawi" title="Education in Malawi">Malawi</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Mauritania" title="Education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Mauritius" title="Education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Morocco" title="Education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Mozambique" title="Education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Namibia" title="Education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Niger" title="Education in Niger">Niger</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Senegal" title="Education in Senegal">Senegal</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Seychelles" title="Education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Somalia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_South_Sudan" title="Education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Sudan" title="Education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Tanzania" title="Education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Tunisia" title="Education in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Uganda" title="Education in Uganda">Uganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Zambia" title="Education in Zambia">Zambia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Zimbabwe" title="Education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Somaliland" title="Education in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div>

<ul><li>Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla (Spain)</li>

<li>Madeira (Portugal)</li>

<li>Mayotte / Réunion (France)</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / Ascension Island / <a href="Education_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> (United Kingdom)</li></ul>

</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Asia413" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Education_in_Asia" title="Education in Asia">Education in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bahrain" title="Education in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bangladesh" title="Education in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bhutan" title="Education in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Brunei" title="Education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Cambodia" title="Education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_China" title="Education in China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_India" title="Education in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Israel</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Jordan" title="Education in Jordan">Jordan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_North_Korea" title="Education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_South_Korea" title="Education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kuwait" title="Education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Education in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Maldives" title="Education in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Mongolia" title="Education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Nepal" title="Education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Philippines" title="Education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Qatar" title="Education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Education in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Singapore" title="Education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Syria</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Tajikistan" title="Education in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Thailand" title="Education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Timor-Leste" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste (East Timor)</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Turkmenistan" title="Education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Education in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Uzbekistan" title="Education in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Yemen" title="Education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Abkhazia</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Palestine" title="Education in Palestine">Palestine</a></li>

<li>South Ossetia</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>British Indian Ocean Territory</li>

<li>Christmas Island</li>

<li>Cocos (Keeling) Islands</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Macau" title="Education in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AAsia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Europe124" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Europe </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Albania" title="Education in Albania">Albania</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Andorra">Andorra</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Austria</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Belarus</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bulgaria" title="Education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Croatia" title="Education in Croatia">Croatia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Education in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Denmark" title="Education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Estonia" title="Education in Estonia">Estonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Finland" title="Education in Finland">Finland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_France" title="Education in France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Greece" title="Education in Greece">Greece</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Hungary" title="Education in Hungary">Hungary</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Iceland" title="Education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Latvia" title="Education in Latvia">Latvia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Liechtenstein" title="Education in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Malta" title="Education in Malta">Malta</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Moldova" title="Education in Moldova">Moldova</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Monaco">Monaco</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Montenegro" title="Education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_North_Macedonia" title="Education in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Poland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Portugal" title="Education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_San_Marino" title="Education in San Marino">San Marino</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Serbia" title="Education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Slovakia" title="Education in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Slovenia" title="Education in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Spain</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Sweden" title="Education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Abkhazia</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kosovo" title="Education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li>

<li>South Ossetia</li>

<li>Transnistria</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_%C3%85land" title="Education in Åland">Åland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Education in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Gibraltar" title="Education in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Guernsey" title="Education in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Jersey" title="Education in Jersey">Jersey</a></li>

<li>Svalbard</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_North_America161" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Education in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Bahamas" title="Education in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Barbados" title="Education in Barbados">Barbados</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Belize" title="Education in Belize">Belize</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Costa_Rica" title="Education in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Dominica" title="Education in Dominica">Dominica</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_El_Salvador" title="Education in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Grenada" title="Education in Grenada">Grenada</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Guatemala" title="Education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Haiti" title="Education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Honduras" title="Education in Honduras">Honduras</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Jamaica" title="Education in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Panama" title="Education in Panama">Panama</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Education in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Education in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Education in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Education in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Anguilla" title="Education in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Aruba">Aruba</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bermuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li>

<li>Bonaire</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Education in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Education in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li>

<li>Curaçao</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Greenland" title="Education in Greenland">Greenland</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li>

<li>Martinique</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Montserrat" title="Education in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Education in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li>

<li>Saint Barthélemy</li>

<li>Saint Martin</li>

<li>Saint Pierre and Miquelon</li>

<li>Sint Eustatius</li>

<li>Sint Maarten</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Oceania110" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Kiribati" title="Education in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Nauru" title="Education in Nauru">Nauru</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_New_Zealand" title="Education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Palau">Palau</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Education in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Samoa">Samoa</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Timor-Leste" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Tonga" title="Education in Tonga">Tonga</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Education in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li>

<li>Christmas Island</li>

<li>Cocos (Keeling) Islands</li>

<li>Easter Island</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li>

<li>New Caledonia</li>

<li>Norfolk Island</li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Education in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Tokelau" title="Education in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li>

<li>Wallis and Futuna</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_South_America213" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Bolivia" title="Education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Brazil" title="Education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Chile" title="Education in Chile">Chile</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Colombia" title="Education in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Ecuador" title="Education in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Guyana" title="Education in Guyana">Guyana</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Paraguay" title="Education in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Suriname" title="Education in Suriname">Suriname</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Uruguay" title="Education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_Venezuela" title="Education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Education_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Education in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Education_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li>

<li>South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3ASchools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li>

<li> WikiProject</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaced_repetition86" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Spaced_repetition86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></li>

<li><a href="Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">Spacing effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li>

<li><a href="Flashcard" title="Flashcard">Flashcard</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Leitner_system" title="Leitner system">Leitner system</a></li>

<li><a href="Incremental_reading" title="Incremental reading">Incremental reading</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Study_software" title="Study software">Study software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cobocards" title="Cobocards">Cobocards</a></li>

<li><a href="Course_Hero" title="Course Hero">Course Hero</a></li>

<li><a href="Duolingo" title="Duolingo">Duolingo</a></li>

<li><a href="ESpindle_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="ESpindle Learning">eSpindle Learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Hello_English" title="Hello English">Hello English</a></li>

<li><a href="Kahoot!" title="Kahoot!">Kahoot!</a></li>

<li><a href="Lingopie" title="Lingopie">Lingopie</a></li>

<li><a href="Memrise" title="Memrise">Memrise</a></li>

<li><a href="Mnemosyne_(software)" title="Mnemosyne (software)">Mnemosyne</a></li>

<li><a href="Quizlet" title="Quizlet">Quizlet</a></li>

<li><a href="SuperMemo" title="SuperMemo">SuperMemo</a></li>

<li><a href="Synap" title="Synap">Synap</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practitioners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Pimsleur" title="Paul Pimsleur">Paul Pimsleur</a></li>

<li><a href="Sebastian_Leitner" title="Sebastian Leitner">Sebastian Leitner</a></li>

<li><a href="Piotr_Wo%C5%BAniak_(researcher)" title="Piotr Woźniak (researcher)">Piotr Woźniak</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Landauer" title="Thomas Landauer">Thomas Landauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li>

<li><a href="Cecil_Alec_Mace" title="Cecil Alec Mace">Cecil Alec Mace</a></li>

<li><a href="Hal_Pashler" title="Hal Pashler">Hal Pashler</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-18" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Testing_effect&oldid=1301234772">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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